Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

Simao Xu,2024 [38]

E = 30

C = 30

M = 60

E = 31.7 ± 11.3

C = 30.4 ± 11.8

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

50–55 min;3 times/w;8w

VAS

M.-S. Peng,2024 [39]

E = 56

C = 57

M = 54

F = 59

E = 22.24 ± 2.12

C = 21.9 ± 2.36

E = aquatic therapy

C = physical factors

60 min;2 times/w;12w

RMDQ

M. Plandowska,2024 [40]

E = 26

C = 26

M = 34

F = 18

18~25 years old

E = combined training

C = no intervention

20 min;5 times /w;8w

ODI

Liansong Luo,2023 [41]

E = 63

C = 63

M = 69

F = 57

E = 32.45 ± 6.16

C = 31.89 ± 6.20

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

20–30 min;7times/w;2w

VAS

Yuying Zhang,2023 [42]

E = 34

C = 34

M = 39

F = 29

E = 44.57 ± 4.05

C = 44.62 ± 4.13

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

30 min;2 times /w;3w

ODI

L.Ge,2022 [43]

E = 15

C = 16

F = 31

E = 64.6 ± 3.71

C = 64.12 ± 2.96

E = core stability

C = physical factors

25–30 min;4 times /w;4w

VAS

Feng Zhang,2022 [44]

E = 75

C = 76

M = 23

F = 128

E = 66.17 ± 5.63

C = 66.07 ± 5.53

E = Tai Ji

C = no intervention

60 min;3 times /w;8w

VAS

Xiaodi Zhang,2022 [45]

E = 21

C = 20

M = 28

F = 13

E = 23.29 ± 1.52

C = 23.10 ± 1.65

E = aquatic therapy

C = land-based core exercise

50 min;3 times /w;8w

VAS

Yizu Wang,2021 [46]

E = 28

C = 28

M = 30

F = 26

E = 27.71 ± 1.98

C = 28.07 ± 3.08

E = aquatic therapy

C = physical factors

50 min;2 times /w;12w

VAS

S. Mumtaz,2021 [47]

E = 37

C = 37

Unreported

25 ~ 30 years old

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise plus physical factors

Unreported;5 times /w;5w

ODI

Wei Wu,2021 [48]

E = 20

C = 20

M = 8

F = 32

E = 32.2 ± 4.29

C = 31.45 ± 5.62

E = core stability

C = physical factors

30 min;5 times /w;2w

ODI

Yanan Bai,2020 [49]

E = 30

C = 30

F = 60

E = 33.3 ± 2.6

C = 32.8 ± 2.3

E = yoga

C = health knowledge education

75 min;3 times /w;12w

VAS

Lianxiu Wang,2020 [50]

E = 15

C = 15

Unreported

55–65 years old

E = yoga

C = health knowledge education

60 min;3 times /w;8w

VAS

Xiuming Li,2020 [51]

E = 21

C = 21

M = 22

F = 20

E = 37.67 ± 2.45

C = 39.43 ± 2.74

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

30 min;3 times /w;48w

VAS

E. Minobes-Molina,2020 [52]

E = 15

C = 15

F = 30

E = 50.1 ± 9.8

C = 50.9 ± 11.0

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

30 min;3–5 times /w;4-6w

RMDQ

B. Kim,2020 [53]

E = 22

C = 24

M = 22

F = 24

E = 47.4 ± 9.48

C = 47.5 ± 9.70

E = core stability

C = stretching exercise

30 min;3 times /w;6w

RMDQ

J. Calatayud,2020 [54]

E = 42

C = 43

Unreported

E = 52 ± 11

C = 50 ± 12

E = combined training

C = conventional exercise

30 min;3 times /w;8w

RMDQ

Xiaoli Zou,2020 [55]

E = 9

C = 9

M = 10

F = 8

E = 65.2 ± 3.5

C = 64.3 ± 4.8

E = aquatic therapy

C = no intervention

60 min;2 times /w;21w

VAS

Mengsi Peng,2020 [56]

E = 27

C = 26

M = 26

F = 27

E = 27.704 ± 5.44

C = 26.58 ± 5.18

E = aquatic therapy

C = physical factors

60 min;2 times /w;12w

RMDQ

Zhiqiang Xu,2019 [57]

E = 15

C = 15

Unreported

E = 45.1 ± 2.6

C = 45.8 ± 3.1

E = sling exercise

C = physical factors

40 min;5 times /w;3w

VAS

Jingjing Ji,2019 [58]

E = 20

C = 20

F = 40

E = 38 ± 26.5

C = 33 ± 2.75

E = sling exercise

C = physical factors

Unreported;2 times /w;12w

RMDQ

M. Brodsky,2019 [59]

E = 30

C = 30

Unreported

E = 49.87 ± 8.74

C = 48.03 ± 10.10

E = combined training

C = health knowledge education

15–30 min;1 time /w;12w

RMDQ

Yanjie Wang,2019 [60]

E = 30

C = 30

M = 42

F = 18

E = 16.80 ± 5.55

C = 18.25 ± 11.83

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

10–20 min;7 times /w;8w

ODI

Xinxin Huang,2019 [61]

E = 8

C = 8

F = 16

E = 26.88 ± 4.22

C = 27.38 ± 4.93

E = yoga

C = no intervention

60 min;3 times /w;12w

ODI

G. Kuvačić,2018 [62]

E = 15

C = 15

M = 16

F = 14

E = 33.6 ± 4.30

C = 34.7 ± 4.83

E = yoga

C = health knowledge education

75 min;2 times /w;8w

NRS

J. M. Cortell-Tormo,2018 [63]

E = 11

C = 8

F = 19

E = 35.6 ± 7.9

C = 35.6 ± 9.7

E = combined training

C = no intervention

45–60 min;2 times /w;12w

VAS

J. Chen,2018 [64]

E = 13

C = 12

F = 25

E = 42.68 ± 3.57

C = 45.61 ± 4.26

E = core stability

C = no intervention

60 min;2 times /w;6w

ODI

P. Noormohammadpour,2018 [65]

E = 10

C = 10

F = 20

E = 43.3 ± 7.5

C = 41.3 ± 6.4

E = core stability

C = no intervention

Unreported; 3 times /w;8w

RMDQ

N. Srivastav,2018 [66]

E = 15

C = 15

Unreported

30~50 years old

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise plus physical factors

Unreported;5 times /w;6w

NRS

M. W. Akhtar,2017 [67]

E = 53

C = 55

Unreported

E = 46.39 ± 7.43

C = 45.5 ± 6.61

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise

40 min;1time/w;6w

VAS

Qian Xu,2017 [68]

E = 25

C = 25

M = 26

F = 24

E = 35.61 ± 8.24

C = 34.78 ± 9.38

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise plus physical factors

Unreported;5 times /w;8w

ODI

T. Thanawat,2017 [69]

E = 62

C = 64

M = 21

F = 106

E = 45 ± 5.4

C = 44.7 ± 5.4

E = combined training

C = health knowledge education

30–40 min;3 times /w;8w

ODI

M. Salavati,2016 [70]

E = 20

C = 20

Unreported

E = 32.6 ± 7.8

C = 29.93 ± 5.18

E = core stability

C = conventional exercise plus physical factors

Unreported;3 times /w;4w

VAS

Yuanshen Zeng,2016 [71]

E = 15

C = 15

Unreported

Average

51.34 ± 7.35

E = sling exercise

C = jogging

Unreported;3–4 times /w;4w

ODI

Z. G. Lin,2015 [72]

E = 30

C = 30

M = 37

F = 23

Average 41.00 ± 9.22

E = Tai Ji

C = conventional massage

Unreported;6 times /w;2w

VAS

Na Liu,2015 [73]

E = 34

C = 34

M = 43

F = 25

E = 39.8 ± 5.7

C = 38.6 ± 5.9

E = core stability

C = physical factors

15–30 min;5 times /w;3w

VAS

Priscila Lawand,2015 [74]

E = 31

C = 30

M = 14

F = 47

E = 45 ± 5.4

C = 44.7 ± 5.5

E = combined training

C = no intervention

60 min;1time/w;12w

RMDQ

Y. Yu-Lin,2015 [75]

E = 7

C = 5

Unreported

E = 27.6 ± 6.7

C = 27.6 ± 5.6

E = sling exercise

C = no intervention

40 min;3 times /w;6w

ODI

J. Jee-Hun,2015 [76]

E = 15

C = 15

F = 30

Twenties

E = Tai Ji

C = stretching exercise

60 min;3 times /w;8w

VAS

Y. H. Cho,2014 [77]

E = 20

C = 20

M = 40

Around 20 years old

E = Tai Ji

C = stretching exercise

60 min;3 times /w;4w

VAS

H. M. Chen,2014 [78]

E = 64

C = 63

Unreported

E = 30.67 ± 4.45

C = 37.7 ± 8.8

E = combined training

C = no intervention

50 min;3 times /w;24w

VAS

Zhihui Li,2014 [79]

E = 39

C = 39

M = 45

F = 33

Average 42 years old

E = sling exercise

C = physical factors

Unreported;4 times /w;4w

VAS